Abstract (Summary)
This paper examines current trends and developments in higher education (HE) and the responses of HE institutions to these changes. The contribution of Library and Information science (LIS) institutions to innovation in Europe is examined through three case studies - the Manchester Metropolitan University (MMU), the Robert Gordon University (RGU) and the Tallinn Pedagogical University (TPU). Technology, globalisation, and competition have caused the ground to shift under HE worldwide. HE institutions have had to rethink their environment in the light of new technologies. During the last five years MMU, RGU and TPU have developed new programmes and courses, new teaching and learning approaches and used information communication technology to support teaching and learning. All staff members have been actively involved in change and the innovation process. In most cases changes have been incremental and the impact of these changes has been rather positive. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]
Full Text(7180 words) |
| [Headnote] |
| Keywords |
| Libraries, Information science, Higher education, Innovation, Education |
| Abstract |
| This paper examines current trends and developments in higher education (HE) and the responses of HE institutions to these changes. The contribution of Library and Information science (LIS) institutions to innovation in Europe is examined through three case studies - the Manchester Metropolitan University (MMU), the Robert Gordon University (RGU) and the Tallinn Pedagogical University (TPU). Technology, globalisation, and competition have caused the ground to shift under HE worldwide. HE institutions have had to rethink their environment in the light of new technologies. During the last five years MMU, RGU and TPU have developed new programmes and courses, new teaching and learning approaches and used information communication technology to support teaching and learning. All staff members have been actively involved in change and the innovation process. In most cases changes have been incremental and the impact of these changes has been rather positive. |
Our society is undergoing a process of rapid change, moving toward what is variously called the "information society", the "knowledge society", the "learning society" or "learning economy". Several social thinkers have tried to understand this change and explain the world in which we live, and many other labels have been given to the period including "post-modern", "post-Fordist", "post-structural", "post-capitalist", "disorganised capitalist", "post-industrial" and "post-traditional" society (Webster, 2002). Inglis et al.
(2002) refer to the following features of the current period:
* dynamic and continuous change and transformation;
* the failure of grand theories such as Marxism to locate and predict directions of change;
* the discontinuist and erratic rather than evolutionary nature of social change;
* the juxtaposition of various images of social, economic and political life; and
* the transformation of images such as Disneyworld, TV sports and Web pages into the realities with which we deal.
While there remains considerable debate as to the precise nature of the restructuring that is taking place, there is widespread agreement that the production and distribution of knowledge are increasingly significant processes in the determination of economic development and competitiveness (OECD, 2001).
Education and training are perceived to be the key elements in the process of change. The issue of how educational change can be managed has become a focus for many politicians, educationalists, educational managers and researchers. Although research has produced a deeper understanding of the process of change, productive educational change has often proved more problematic, slow or costly than anticipated at the outset.
Alongside educational change run concern with and the study of innovation. Rogers (1995) has noted that "no other field of behaviour science research represents more effort by more scholars in more disciplines in more nations". In 1962 there were 405 publications on innovation; by 1995, there were about 4,000 and more has been written since then, particularly in relation to new technologies. Education accounts for about 10 per cent of the innovation literature (Rogers, 1995). However, the lack of sustainable innovation is a concern of many observers, both in the European Commission and in higher education (HE) (HECTIC, 2002).
The authors examine current trends and developments in HE and the responses of HE institutions to these changes. The contribution of Library and Information Science (LIS) institutions to innovation in Europe is examined through three case studies - the Manchester Metropolitan University (MMU - UK), the Robert Gordon University (RGU - UK) and the Tallinn Pedagogical University (TPU - Estonia).
Trends and developments in the HE environment
During the last decade, technology, globalisation, and competition have caused the ground to shift under HE worldwide, defying national borders and calling into question honoured traditions, myths, and previously unquestioned assumptions (ACE, 2002, p. 7) - that can be called a change of paradigm in HE. Tiano has characterised the old and new paradigms of HE as illustrated in Table I.
While information communications technology (ICT) use is recognised to be the most important change driver in education and training systems, many other change factors have considerable impact on education and training as well. Developments in the workplace, changes in student demographics, and the economic trends are forcing educational institutions to change. For example, in the workplace, employers are seeking employees who possess ICT and information-handling skills with an emphasis on problem solving, analysis, evaluation, and decision making. Demographic trends show decreasing numbers of younger students and increasing numbers of older students. Older students have more outside-school obligations that need to be considered in academic delivery. Growing numbers of students are working part-time while enrolled in full-time programmes and current educational delivery systems should meet their unique needs. There is also a growing impact of economic pressures: the increase in enrolment and operating costs, while funding for teaching and training is decreases (Treuhaft, 1995).
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| Table I Old and new paradigms of HE |
Corrall (2002) refers to the political, economic, social and technological change drivers that influence HE institutions in Europe. Political change drivers include The Data Protection Act, the EU Copyright Directive, freedom of information, joined-up government, the modernisation agenda, public accountability, regional development, social inclusion, quality assurance and lifelong learning. Economic drivers refer to borderless business, consumer power, e-commerce, global competition, information costs, knowledge assets, mass customisation, outsourced functions, public expenditure and strategic alliances. Social drivers cover ageing population, cultural diversity, the digital divide, environmental concerns, geographical differences, portfolio careers, the quality of life, the 24-hour society, ubiquitous computing and workplace flexibility. Technological change drivers include broadband networks, collaborative tools, digital broadcasting, electronic publishing, intelligent agents, mobile communications, open archives, push technology, virtual environments and Web portals.
Universities all over the world face an imperative to adapt and adjust to a whole series of profound changes that fall into six major categories:
(1) the increased demand for HE in a lifelong learning context;
(2) the internationalisation of education and research;
(3) the need to develop co-operation between universities and industry;
(4) the proliferation of places where knowledge is produced;
(5) the reorganisation of knowledge; and
(6) the emergence of new expectations (EC, 2003).
In this context HE appears to be a focus of interest and debate of several international organisations. For example, the seventh Transatlantic Dialogue, co-sponsored by the American Council on Education (ACE), the Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada (AUCC), and the European University Association (EUA), was held in July 2001 in Quebec, Canada to explore the forces shaping HE in the USA, Canada, and Europe (ACE, 2002). Five years after the World Conference on HE in Paris (1998), UNESCO once again reunited actors in HE from across the world. It arranged the follow-up of the World Conference in Paris, in June 2003, which evaluated progress in the implementation of the World Declaration and defined orientations for future action at the level of member states and institutions. The intention was to ensure that HE is able to respond better to rising needs and challenges (UNESCO, 2003a). The main areas of concern outlined by the World Declaration on Higher Education are still relevant:
* coping with the "massification" of HE;
* diversification of institutions and programmes;
* recognition of degrees throughout member states;
* quality assurance;
* accreditation and competitiveness of academic provision;
* promotion of the mobility of staff and students;
* the shrinking of public funding for HE and the need to diversify funding sources, while preserving the responsibility of governments for the provision of HE as a "public good"; and
* the call for more institutional autonomy combined with increased accountability and globalisation trends in HE (UNESCO, 2003b).
In Europe, the creation of a Europe of knowledge has been a prime objective for the European Union (EU) since the Lisbon European Council of March 2000. Subsequent European Councils, particularly Stockholm in March 2001 and Barcelona in March 2002, have taken the Lisbon objective further forward. The universities have a particularly important role in the Lisbon agenda. This is because of their twofold traditional vocation of research and teaching. They are also significant players because of their increasing role in the complex process of innovation, along with their other contributions to economic competitiveness and social cohesion, for example their role in the life of the community and in regional development (EC, 2003). Changes and challenges in European HE refer to what is commonly known as the Bologna Process. In May 1998. Ministers of Education from France, the UK, Italy and Germany signed the Sorbonne Declaration. The process was launched in June 1999. when 31 ministers of education agreed to pursue a set of common goals in HE and signed the Bologna Declaration. These goals, through a set of policy measures (later reinforced and expanded at the meeting of ministers in Prague in May 2001), mark what is widely regarded as a watershed in the history of HE in Europe. The main objective is the creation, by the year 2010, of the European HE area (UNESCO, 2003b).
The 2nd Convention of European HE institutions organised by the EUA, from 29-31 May 2003, aimed to finalise the contribution of HE institutions in the creation of European HE Area. The meeting of ministers, in Berlin, on
18-19 September 2003, will further the progress in this direction (EUA, 2003). The creation of the European HE Area (together with another strategic goal of the creation of the European Research and Innovation Area) now provides a principle framework for the long-term development of HE in the region (Reichert and Tauch, 2003).
In addition to the Bologna process, the main trends and developments that have influenced, and are going to have a major role in, the future of HE in Europe are the following:
* The growing demand for HE institutions to assert themselves, through teaching, learning, and research, as knowledge providers and learning organisations.
* The strong impact of ICT on the organisation of studies and curricula and the modes of study programme delivery.
* The wide diversification of HE providers, particularly the appearance and multiplication of transnational HE providers.
* The emerging markets of HE at national, regional, and global levels, that generate clashes between the academic and the market paradigm of HE.
* The increasing concern with academic quality assurance in HE and the need to establish a new pan-European framework for quality assurance, accreditation, and recognition of qualifications, which should be relevant nationally, regionally and globally.
* The need to develop a European qualifications framework focused on common references such as the sequencing of study cycles with specific descriptors of the profiles of degrees, introduction of the European Credit Transfer Scheme (ECTS), and Diploma Supplement.
* The need for governments to provide the most appropriate incentives for encouraging HE institutions to be innovative and entrepreneurial in conditions where the public financial support of governments to HE is diminishing.
* The need to reduce the gap between the level of development of HE in the developed countries and those from certain transition countries.
* The demand for programmes of lifelong learning (many traditional HE institutions are still reluctant to provide such programmes, thus allowing for the mushrooming of new providers of programmes, often of a lower quality).
* Research in HE is widely considered as the main driver of high academic institutional quality and of an enhanced contribution to the development of the new economies.
* The assertion of the complementarity between the professional training based on the needs of graduate employability and the education of citizens ready to participate fully in the promotion and preservation of democratic values.
* Important role played by HE in the emerging knowledge societies brings about a growing recognition of the need for a more coherent and forward-oriented reform of HE that calls for new policies and "a new generation" of policy documents and basic laws on HE (UNESCO, 2003b, pp. 28-9).
However, many commentators agree that the European university world is not trouble-free. Reforms are needed because it is believed that European HE is lagging behind compared to the USA, especially regarding public and private investment in HE and in the number and level of incoming students from other continents. There are a number of areas within which reflection, and often also action, is needed, and which raise a series of questions such as:
* how to achieve adequate and sustainable incomes for universities, and to ensure that funds are spent most efficiently;
* how to ensure autonomy and professionalism in academic as well as managerial affairs;
* how to concentrate enough resources on excellence, and create the conditions within which universities can attain and develop excellence;
* how to make universities contribute better to local and regional needs and strategies;
* how to establish closer co-operation between universities and enterprises to ensure better dissemination and exploitation of new knowledge in the economy and society at large; and
* how to foster, through all of these areas, the coherent, compatible and competitive European HE area as well as the European research area (EC, 2003, pp. 2-3).
Viviane Reding, Member of the European Commission responsible for Education and Culture, highlighted in her speech at the EUA Convention of European HE Institutions in Graz, in May 2003, that the main challenges European HE is faced with are globalisation, the demographic challenge (ageing, immigration), the challenge to provide good quality teaching and research and - as a consequence - the challenge to modernise the system of HE (Reding, 2003).
However, even these descriptors - globalisation, internationalisation, collaboration, emerging markets, new providers, competition, cost efficiency, quality assurance, ICT - appear consistently in any discussions of HE future. Such terms may, however, describe different phenomena and elicit different interpretations in different contexts. It is believed that a shared understanding of the forces that are reshaping HE within and among nations provides an essential foundation for the development of sound policy and effective institutional strategies to adapt to these new realities.
Responses of HE institutions to changes
In order to respond to these changes and challenges, many HE institutions have had to rethink their environment in the light of new technologies. Increasing numbers of academic staff are experimenting with student-centred learning approaches and basing their teaching on constructivist models of learning. There has been an attempt to improve and innovate traditional HE as well as to provide new and alternative learning opportunities. In particular, online education and electronic learning environments are perceived as innovations that offer the potential to promote lifelong learning by supporting flexible learning, fostering learner control, and stimulating learner engagement. Many educational institutions have started to offer courses online and make significant use of new media (Virkus, 2001). Electronic learning environments also support competency-based education that allows students some degree of choice regarding learning content and method of instruction as well as providing worldwide access to library and learning (Dillemans et al., 1998). However, according to Collis and van der Wende's (2002) international comparative survey on the current and future use of ICT in HE in the USA and Europe, the traditional lecture has still remained the "core medium" for many HE institutions with ICT serving as a complement to already existing instructional tools.
It is no longer valid to speak of a clear differentiation between distance and on-site education. However, an increasing number of traditional universities have begun to offer their programmes through distance education (DE). DE has the potential to generate new patterns of teaching and learning and there is evidence that it can lead to innovation in mainstream education, and may even have effects beyond the realm of education itself. It is also believed that DE, therefore, plays a particularly decisive role in the creation of the global knowledge-based society and will be an important element of future education and training systems that have significant pedagogical, economic and organisational implications (UNESCO, 2002, p. 8).
So as to respond to the demographic trends, many universities have opened their doors to non-traditional learners (part-time learners, home learners, professional training in sectors and companies) and have designed new programmes and courses. Reding (2003) also notes that universities should rethink the way in which students enter and leave their institutions and the type of courses on offer to them. They should consider providing courses at unusual hours (evenings and weekends), to unusual students (workers, adults) at unusual places (the workplace), using unusual techniques (distance learning and ICT). Universities should create "welcome centres" where they assess non-traditional learners, give advice on individual learning paths, decide on admission to full courses or individual modules, leading or not leading to a degree. Each institution will have to define its own profile and position itself in the continuum of lifelong learning.
Universities also use ICT possibilities more actively for internationalisation and investigate possibilities of adding a European dimension to national curricula. Several HE institutions experiment with collaborative learning and teaching and explore new ways of collaboration supported by ICT. ICTs have also opened new opportunities for enhancing the quality of education, made education accessible to all on a global scale as well as redesigning the teaching profession: it has shifted their role from that of a mere information deliverer to one of "guide" in the learning process (Dillemans et al., 1998).
However, according to Dillemans et al. (1998), ICT is a necessary, but not a sufficient, prerequisite for educational innovation. The real challenge is to transform ICT power into learning power and to develop pedagogical scenarios, which integrate ICT and traditional education optimally. Thus, it is important to invest in research and experimentation on how to use ICT effectively to improve the quality of education.
Yet, according to Collis and Van der Wende (2002), change in HE institutions in general is slow, and not radical. Overall it seems that HE institutions do not expect revolutionary change as a result from, or related to, the use of ICT. In general, there is not really a concern about being forced to change by external forces or developments. Rather, a "business as usual" approach is taken, without anticipating any real dramatic changes in mission, profile or market position. Small changes between countries, however, suggest that institutions that have a clearer view on their mission with respect to serving different target groups (e.g. lifelong learning or international students) with ICT and on their position in that/those particular markets demonstrate higher levels of use of ICT.
Nevertheless, the general picture is that in most cases institutions are now transferring from a period of rich and mostly bottom-up experimentation to a phase in which institution-wide use of ICT is being encouraged. In many cases the first stage of institution-wide ICT implementation, i.e. the establishment of an institution-wide technological infrastructure, is now in place. However, the second stage, i.e. rich pedagogical use of this infrastructure, is in many cases still in development. The third stage, which could be labelled as strategic use of ICT with a view to the different target groups of HE, has in most cases not yet been considered explicitly. Furthermore, in general, institutions are still by and large focused on their traditional target group (high school leavers) (Collis and Van der Wende, 2002).
Contribution of LIS institutions to innovation in Europe
During the last decade, LIS departments and institutions, like many other HE institutions, have been experiencing change at an accelerating rate. In many departments/institutions and meetings throughout the world, coping with change has become a common topic for discussions. There has been an explosion of interest in new forms of teaching and learning made possible by new ICTs and development of new programmes and courses in LIS education. In most LIS departments/ institutions in the majority of European countries, there is enough IT available to expect that students will use it. The immense potential IT has to prepare students better for the future has been recognised, as has its ability to provide opportunities for adults to continue learning. Many LIS departments/institutions have started to offer courses online and make significant use of ICTs. These courses consist of a diverse collection of learning resources distributed across numerous media and technologies. DE plays an important role in an increasing number of LIS departments/ institutions (Virkus, 2001, pp. 78-9).
Whatever the reasons, without colleagues in HE institutions who are prepared to take risks and innovate, these opportunities offered by new ICTs may be lost. To implement ICT innovation in education requires a lot of willingness and capacity for change from teachers and learners as well as full support from the policy-makers. Therefore, issues of change and innovation were examined at three LIS departments/institutions - the MMU, the RGU and the TPU. These three institutions were selected because the authors of this article have existing links and collaboration with these three institutions. However, it should be said that these institutions are just a few examples and so the results may not be representative.
While the history of LIS education in Manchester goes back more than 50 years, the Department of Information & Communications at MMU (http://www.hlss.mmu.ac.uk/dic/), has existed in its current form for five years. It is a separate department within the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences and has an attached research centre, the Centre for Research in Library and Information Management (CERLIM). The respondent commented that recruitment to the undergraduate course in Information and Library Management/ Information Management (ILM/IM) has been declining in line with other LIS undergraduate courses in the UK. Other undergraduate courses in Information and Communications and Information Architecture recruit well and subsidise the ILM/IM route. Postgraduate courses in ILM/IM are still buoyant. MMU has traditionally (though not exclusively) recruited from the Greater Manchester area. MMU has introduced "courseware", which is a way of making lecture slides, reading lists etc available over the intranet. Initially this was introduced as an option for lecturing staff to reduce photocopying, but popular demand from students has led to it being adopted across all programmes. The learning management system, WebCT, is used to deliver one undergraduate course and elements of other courses across all the programmes. A feature of this is that the lecturer does not have to be physically present, but is available online during the scheduled teaching slots. It is early days yet, but this seems to be making changes to the way teaching is delivered.
At the RGU, an internal restructuring has turned what was, until very recently, the School of Information and Media into a constituent part (Information Management) of the Aberdeen Business School (http://www.rgu.ac.uk/abs/). The undergraduate course in Information and Library Studies (ILS) ceased to exist as a separate entity a couple of years ago. Students now wishing to pursue this as an option can elect to take specific modules in a generalised Information Communication or Information Management degree. A new undergraduate course in Knowledge Management was offered from September 2003. Postgraduate courses in ILS form one of several offerings from the Information Management team. Other offerings are an MSc in Information Analysis, an MSc in Electronic Information Management, and an MA in Publishing Studies. Initial experiments in DE included the MA in ILS and MA in Publishing Studies. These courses offered telephone tutorials and the submission of coursework and assessments electronically, but otherwise the course was paper-based. Two years ago, RGU senior management made a strategic decision to become a Virtual Campus. The contribution by the School of Information and Media was to convert its MA in ILS into proper DE with all teaching and materials delivered over the Internet. This has been an unqualified success, with currently 140 students registered. Recruitment was traditionally from all over Scotland, with a few overseas students. Following the introduction of the Virtual Campus, students have been recruited from all over the world.
During the last decade the Department of Information Studies at TPU (http://www.tpu.ee/ infoteaduste_osakond.html) has seen rapid changes both in its structure and in the curriculum. Since 1991, advanced degree courses (MA, PhD) lead two degrees - Master of Information Sciences (MA) and Doctor of Philosophy in Humanities (PhD). In order to promote research, development and continuing professional education (CPE), the Centre for Information Management (CIM) was founded on a departmental basis in 1995. Since 1999 the CIM has been working on the basis of three programs - a program for CPE, a program for R&D and a program for DE. In December 2001, the curriculum was adapted according to the Bologna scheme and was the first curriculum of that kind accepted by the Academic Council of TPU. In 2002, a new DE MA programme in Information Management was developed with currently 20 students registered. The delivery platform is IVA - an electronic platform developed by the Educational Technology Centre of TPU according to the principles of social constructivism - which replaces the previously used learning management system, WebCT. The department has experimented with modern DE technology since 1995. The DE pilot project for school librarians in 1996 was the first project in the department adopting modern distance learning methods. During the past few years, elements of online learning have been used in many courses, and several traditional courses have been delivered in distance mode since 2002 because of staff mobility.
The case studies provided for this paper are based on the interviews with staff members at MMU, RGU and TPU. A total of 12 interviews were carried out at three universities in spring 2003 covering a number of aspects, which sought to determine where the innovations and changes had originated, which people were instrumental in introducing and implementing change, attitudes to the changes, and generally looking at the impact of the changes on both the pedagogy and the departments concerned.
Most of the staff members interviewed agreed that innovation can be defined as "the adoption of ideas that are new to the adopting organisation". It means changes in organisational and economic terms. In addition to the process and idea, innovation was also described as a practice, approach, system or object, which is perceived as new by an individual, group or organisation. It was also emphasised that what is familiar in one context can appear as an innovative in another - it might apply to teaching, research or administration and might include curricular change and mode of delivery. Respondents referred to new types of student needs and the differing teaching approaches to engage students and encourage interaction, including new ways of making resources available to students. One respondent felt that innovation needs to be effective, because sometimes quality is lost with innovation. Therefore, for the implementation of innovation in education a systematic approach to the learning process as well as to the educational system is essential.
All respondents agreed that there is a constant need to innovate. Like it or not the world is changing and the pace is increasing and if one does not come up with a better idea then someone else will. It was believed that successful innovators gain a leading competitive advantage and good innovation generally aims for improvement. One respondent notes: "We need to be an expert in what will be fashionable tomorrow. The fundamentals don't change, but it is important to keep ahead". Another says: "Innovation is needed to keep our heads above water". A number of respondents referred to the need to maintain student numbers as a reason for change.
The main innovations that have been introduced in the last five years have included first, structural changes in departmental organisation, the main one being university-wide restructuring which has led to reduced staff numbers, and at one department new types of management were being introduced, using committee structures to manage departmental affairs. The incorporation of a research centre into the department, and innovation in admissions procedures were thought to be significant.
Second, there are changes where ICT has been introduced to assist teaching and learning. These include the development of courseware and the use of learning management systems (WebCT, IVA), the use of video and audio-conferencing possibilities to support learning and attempts to use electronic platforms as a discussion and delivery device and research discussion medium. New approaches to teaching and learning resulting from innovations in ICT are themselves novel.
The third main area where innovation is common is in the development of new programmes and courses. The identification of new learning needs led to the development of new programmes and courses as well as to new concepts of curricula and courses. Trends and developments in Europe also influenced reorganisation of curricula in the light of Bologna process and international student and staff mobility. Open and distance learning programmes, innovative student support systems, participation in innovative university-wide and international research and development projects are all part of these developments. At a departmental level, joint degrees with other departments have been developed and the number of assessments has been increased although the size of the assessments has been reduced to cope with new types of student. Several people highlighted the role of distance learning and that a by-product of distance learning has been the ability to review lecturer/ student interactions. It has enabled a rethink of teaching and learning approaches and has added new quality to learning materials. These developments feed through into on-campus teaching. One respondent notes:
DE has had a major impact on thinking and practice for the whole teaching and learning process, regarding such matters as how students learn, how they can best be taught, how to support teaching and learning and how educational resources might more efficiently be organised to deliver the instruction that is needed.
At TPU the process of internationalisation and forming new partnerships were perceived as innovations. Staff were committed to enhancing the mobility and exchange of students, academics, and to increasing the internationalisation of education and research. The ERASMUS Program for student and staff mobility, initiated in 2000, now includes collaboration among 11 institutions in seven countries. Joint international research and development projects (Phare, Tempus, Norfa, Leonardo da Vinci, Comenius, Minerva, etc) have been formulated to promote the integration of expertise from other related disciplines and practices. Membership and participation in several international institutions - European Association for Library and Information Education and Research (EUCLID), Organisation of European LIS institutions (BOBCATSSS), IFLA section of Education and Training, European Association of Distance Teaching Universities (EADTU) - as well as development of the curriculum under the guidance of foreign experts and learning from the experiences and standards of partner universities are all part of these developments.
The main pressures or triggers that led to the introduction of innovation were connected with the need for continuous improvement and to maintain efficiency, effectiveness and economy. Development of new courses has arisen from a concern that degrees are still marketable and use available teaching expertise to maximum effect. There was a need to make sure that there is maximum exploitation of existing units. Courseware at MMU arose from an initial desire to cut down on photocopying and impacted on teaching delivery. Introduction of new styles of management evolved from there being nothing in place, so different things were tried out in an attempt to involve staff in decision-making and doing things more efficiently. Admissions procedures were looked at because of a lack of students of the right quality and retention issues. Introducing ICT in education helped to overcome routine and repetitive tasks and offered teachers opportunities to spend more time on creation of lessons in a new and challenging way. It has also released staff to invest more time in individual coaching. WebCT and IVA helped to manage staff and student workloads and improve communication.
Introduction of innovation was also connected with changes in the discipline, with changes in teaching and learning approaches, anticipated changes in student patterns of study, changes in the needs and requirements of practitioners and recognition that continuous development for librarians depends on them. There was also a need to reach to the new target groups and offer possibilities for lifelong learning.
Innovations tend to be communicated to the staff and discussed mainly in departmental meetings and via memos and e-mails. In one institution an electronic platform was used. Usually developments were top-down, and came as actions to be taken. However, the need to develop more leadership and direction among staff was mentioned as well.
It seems that, in all three departments, all staff members have been involved in a change and innovation process - with some staff more significant in shaping the curriculum, some in developing open and distance learning as well as online teaching and learning programmes and courses, and some in ICT use and internationalisation processes as well as research activities. In each department the leaders of innovation tended to be two or three people in key roles who have been underpinning developments and the significant driving forces. There have been small pockets of resistance.
It was pointed out that the staff generally have been remarkably resilient, positive and supportive - they seem to understand the need for continuous change and recognise the success of the new programmes and the difficulties of the old. However, in some cases people were sceptical initially because they thought it involved more work and there was resistance in some quarters. One respondent mentioned that there had been a negative impact on research capability and innovation had put pressure on other areas.
In most cases changes have been incremental. Incremental innovation involves small improvements and extensions to existing products, processes and services. However, respondents suggested that the introduction of courseware was radical and that distance learning involved a mixture of incremental and radical changes. The need to work with other departments suggested architectural change.
A number of impacts were noted. At MMU, the incorporation of CERLIM research centre into the department has transformed the research profile of the department. Courseware has radically altered delivery of teaching and the expectations of students. Learning management systems (WebCT and IVA) have had a positive impact on teaching methods and hopefully on the way students learn. The impact of changes in admissions is expected to be a slightly better quality of student, rather than larger numbers who drop out. Distance learning has kept things afloat, helped to reach new target groups, to make learning more flexible and to rethink teaching and learning. At RGU it was felt that the introduction of the Virtual Campus has had an enormous impact on staff workloads. The new programmes have created pressure, and even though they have resulted in the recruitment of more staff, there has been a drastic increase in student numbers and staff/student ratio changed for the worse. Staff have had to change the way that they work, but the Virtual Campus has introduced a fantastically new dynamic to teaching which is really interesting. The experience gained in delivering off-campus courses adds richness to staff and to the teaching of on-campus students. It also offers more control over student non-attendance since they have to engage with the mode of delivery.
In terms of competing with other LIS departments all three departments found that the introduction of innovation was a good strategy. One respondent notes "The department is a lot stronger than five years ago. Partly down to things that the department has done, but partly a weakening of other LIS departments due to [their] institutional decision-making". Another respondent notes "The introduction of innovation was a good strategy. The department has strengthened its image at institutional, national, regional and international level and has brought in traditional as well as 'non-traditional' students".
Ideas for innovation were generally the province of heads of departments and senior departmental staff, although at RGU the idea for the Virtual Campus was made at institutional level. All respondents were actively involved in the change and innovation process and helped to implement it. Ideas for further innovation that would improve their position in competition with other universities included expansion of distance learning and use of more blended learning (a mix of online and face-to-face learning). Two respondents note: "A significant development is in the pipeline. But there is a need to focus on quality and be amongst the best". One head of department reported having lots of ideas, but felt constrained by institutional policies: "The institution is inflexible, so it is continually frustrating".
Conclusions
MMU, RGU and TPU like many other HE institutions in Europe are faced with such challenges as globalisation, competition, the challenge to provide good quality teaching and research, and the challenge to modernise their structure and departmental organisation. In common with other HE institutions the three LIS departments are seeking to maintain efficiency, effectiveness and economy and feel a constant need to innovate and to respond changes. A number of interrelated pressures have created the need for change in LIS departments, for example, the expansion of HE, a changing student profile, new target groups, internationalisation as well as ICT.
During the last five years these departments have developed new programmes and courses, new teaching and learning approaches and used ICT to support teaching and learning. Although ICT is a common feature of teaching and learning in all three institutions, two departments have paid more attention to delivering DE courses and programmes, whereas the third has used ICT to deliver parts of existing on-campus courses. Two departments have had significant structural changes, one department has invested more in research and experimentation, and another has paid more attention to internationalisation process. The "Bologna process" has had greater influence on the department in TPU where the declaration has led to modifications of existing degree structures, as well as the initiation of new degrees.
All staff members have been actively involved in change and the innovation process, however, two/ three people in key roles have underpinned developments and been significant driving forces. There has not been significant resistance to change. The staff generally have recognised the need to change and been responsive. In most cases changes have been incremental and the impact of these changes has been rather positive - it has helped to reach to the new target groups, to make learning more flexible and interesting, and to rethink the whole teaching and learning process. However, the implementation of innovation in education also requires the full support from the policy-makers. Where innovation has been introduced at institutional level, the change appears to have been radical, and also more pervasive and successful. Individuals driving change within departments appear to face a harder struggle to get their ideas accepted, so the changes tend to be more incremental. It is encouraging that the need for change in LIS is central to thinking about the future. So far, it seems that there has been a good strategy for innovation, but also the right people to implement the strategy.
Three case studies examined for this paper do not confirm the argument that the change in HE institutions is slow and there is not really a concern about being forced to change by external forces or developments. All three institutions have transferred from a period of rich and mostly bottom-up experimentation to a phase in which institution-wide use of ICT is being encouraged and rich pedagogical use of this infrastructure is considered. Strategic use of ICT with a view to the different target groups of HE is very much in place in RGU and elements of this third stage can be clearly found in MMU and TPU as well.
However, it should be said that these conclusions are made on the basis of three case studies and the results may not be representative. However, some interesting similarities have been identified in these three institutions and any sharp differences because of the different national contexts of the three case studies were not recognised. It would be interesting to extend this research to other LIS departments to see if these results are more generally applicable, and also to cover the role of the professional bodies and employers.
